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Asian American Law Journal
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The Japanese Journal of American Studies (no.23, 2012)
This article takes up the first few decades of the Chinese Exclusion era, a period in which the exclusion policy increased in severity, culminating in a massive anti-American boycott movement in China in 1905. By tracing the intensification process of the Chinese Exclusion policy, I show the ways that Chinese, as an unassimilable alien race, became a reference point to assess the eligibility for membership in the U.S. nation. I also explore the ways that the emerging notion of Chinese as one race and one people, which was promoted by Chinese reformers and revolutionaries, came to mobilize thousands of Chinese to protest against U.S. immigration policy. Through this examination, I elucidate how the two notions of Chinese -- as an unassimilable alien race in the United States and as one national people in China -- were transnationally linked by means of the notion of “race” in conjunction with that of “survival,” both of which were informed by the ideas of social Darwinism, linking internal and global relations.
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Journal of Historical Sociology
Abstract The debates around Chinese exclusion were part of a racial reimagining of the United States after the Civil War. These debates show how the Exclusion Acts were the “prelude to imperialism” overseas. By employing competing racisms toward Chinese migrants, disparate groups of whites created contradictory stereotypes of the Chinese, such as the “coolie” and “celestial.” Focusing on working-class whites’ messy and violent racism toward the Chinese has contributed to ignoring more paternalistic “civilized” racism of missionaries, reformers, politicians, and capitalists that led to more lasting stereotypes of Chinese, such as the “model minority.” This study analyzes how these racisms simultaneously contributed to the transformation of the racial state and the extension of imperialist policies, while they disciplined workers of all races, Chinese immigrants, Filipinos, and whites.
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Transnational Crossroads: Reimagining Asian America, Latin@ America, and the American Pacific
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International Migration Review
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Journal of Social Issues
